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Access to Zero-Emission Vehicles for Low-Income and Disadvantaged Communities: Evidence from California
Corresponding Author(s) : Galih Bramudyas Yogaswara
Nusantara Science and Technology Proceedings,
Multi-Conference Proceeding Series F
Abstract
This study assesses California's Clean Cars for All (CC4A) program, which seeks to improve access to clean-energy vehicles for low-income residents and reduce emissions. The research examines two questions: (1) How effective is CC4A in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality? and (2) What factors influence participants' choice of vehicle type—conventional, hybrid, plug-in hybrid (PHEV), or zero-emission vehicle (ZEV)? Using participant data from the California Air Resources Board (n=3,497) from January 2022 to June 2023, the study applies multinomial logistic regression to identify car choice determinants. Findings indicate that CC4A effectively reduces emissions. Higher-income participants are more likely to choose ZEVs or PHEVs, while larger households tend to select conventional vehicles, likely due to limited ZEV options for larger family needs. Participants in disadvantaged communities show a preference for PHEVs over ZEVs, with notable geographic variation—Bay Area residents prefer ZEVs, whereas Central Valley residents favor PHEVs. Key limitations include data gaps, such as missing participant age and education data, and underrepresented geographic areas. The study concludes that while CC4A promotes clean transportation, further steps could enhance program impact. Recommendations include reducing cost barriers for ZEVs, expanding charging infrastructure in low-income areas, and increasing affordable ZEV options for larger households. These insights support policymakers in improving clean transportation access for underserved communities.
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- Axsen, J., Hardman, S., & Jenn, A. (2022). What do we know about zero-emission vehicle mandates? Environ Sci Technol., 56(12), 7553–63.
- California Air Resources Board. (2023a). Clean cars for all. [Internet]. [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/clean-cars-4-all
- California Air Resources Board. (2023b). Participant-level data EFMP scrap and replace and clean cars for all program. [Internet]. Available from: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/clean-cars-4-all/outcomes-and-results-clean-cars-4-all
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. (2023). California disadvantaged communities 2022 (Census tracts and tribal areas). [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/sb535
- Davis, L. W. (2019). Evidence of a homeowner-renter gap for electric vehicles. Applied Economics Letters, 26(11), 927–32.
- Desilver, D. (2021). Pew Research Center. [cited 2024 Apr 4]. As national eviction ban expires, a look at who rents and who owns in the U.S. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/08/02/as-national-eviction-ban-expires-a-look-at-who-rents-and-who-owns-in-the-u-s/
- Funke, S. Á., Sprei, F., Gnann, T., & Plötz, P. (2019). How much charging infrastructure do electric vehicles need? A review of the evidence and international comparison. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 77, 224–42.
- Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (2020). Applied logistic regression. Second. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., & Taylor, J. (2023). An introduction to statistical learning: with applications in Python. [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 4]. (Springer Texts in Statistics). Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-38747-0
- Ledna, C., Muratori, M., Brooker, A., Wood, E., & Greene, D. (2022). How to support EV adoption: Tradeoffs between charging infrastructure investments and vehicle subsidies in California. Energy Policy, 165, 112931.
- Paul, M., & Moe, L. (2023). An economist’s case for restrictive supply side policies: Ten policies to manage the fossil fuel transition. [Internet]. Climate and Community Project; 2023 Mar. Available from: https://www.climateandcommunity.org/economists-case-end-fossil-fuels.
- The White House. (2024). FACT SHEET: President Biden Takes Action to Protect American Workers and Businesses from China’s Unfair Trade Practices. [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 May 31]. Available from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/05/14/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-action-to-protect-american-workers-and-businesses-from-chinas-unfair-trade-practices/
- US Department of Energy. (2024). Alternative Fuels Data Center. 2024 [cited 2024 May 5]. Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure. Available from: https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/ev-tax-credits
- US Department of Energy. (2023). Energy efficiency and renewable energy. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Electric Vehicle Registrations by State. Available from: https://afdc.energy.gov/data
References
Axsen, J., Hardman, S., & Jenn, A. (2022). What do we know about zero-emission vehicle mandates? Environ Sci Technol., 56(12), 7553–63.
California Air Resources Board. (2023a). Clean cars for all. [Internet]. [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/clean-cars-4-all
California Air Resources Board. (2023b). Participant-level data EFMP scrap and replace and clean cars for all program. [Internet]. Available from: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/clean-cars-4-all/outcomes-and-results-clean-cars-4-all
California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. (2023). California disadvantaged communities 2022 (Census tracts and tribal areas). [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/sb535
Davis, L. W. (2019). Evidence of a homeowner-renter gap for electric vehicles. Applied Economics Letters, 26(11), 927–32.
Desilver, D. (2021). Pew Research Center. [cited 2024 Apr 4]. As national eviction ban expires, a look at who rents and who owns in the U.S. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/08/02/as-national-eviction-ban-expires-a-look-at-who-rents-and-who-owns-in-the-u-s/
Funke, S. Á., Sprei, F., Gnann, T., & Plötz, P. (2019). How much charging infrastructure do electric vehicles need? A review of the evidence and international comparison. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 77, 224–42.
Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (2020). Applied logistic regression. Second. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., & Taylor, J. (2023). An introduction to statistical learning: with applications in Python. [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 4]. (Springer Texts in Statistics). Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-38747-0
Ledna, C., Muratori, M., Brooker, A., Wood, E., & Greene, D. (2022). How to support EV adoption: Tradeoffs between charging infrastructure investments and vehicle subsidies in California. Energy Policy, 165, 112931.
Paul, M., & Moe, L. (2023). An economist’s case for restrictive supply side policies: Ten policies to manage the fossil fuel transition. [Internet]. Climate and Community Project; 2023 Mar. Available from: https://www.climateandcommunity.org/economists-case-end-fossil-fuels.
The White House. (2024). FACT SHEET: President Biden Takes Action to Protect American Workers and Businesses from China’s Unfair Trade Practices. [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 May 31]. Available from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/05/14/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-action-to-protect-american-workers-and-businesses-from-chinas-unfair-trade-practices/
US Department of Energy. (2024). Alternative Fuels Data Center. 2024 [cited 2024 May 5]. Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure. Available from: https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/ev-tax-credits
US Department of Energy. (2023). Energy efficiency and renewable energy. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Electric Vehicle Registrations by State. Available from: https://afdc.energy.gov/data